PostgreSQL Production Guide — Tuning, Pooling, Monitoring

"PostgreSQL'in default config'i bir RaspberryPi için yazılmış gibidir. Production sunucusunda ilk hafta tune edilmezse, 6 ay sonra 'niye yavaş' tartışması başlar."

Bu rehber 2026 itibarıyla bir prod-grade PostgreSQL kurulumu için kritik tuning, connection pooling, monitoring ve operational konularını derler. Postgres 16/17 referans alır.

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🎯 İlk Karar: Containerize, Managed, Bare-Metal?

Senaryo	Tercih
Dev / staging	Container (docker-compose / StatefulSet)
Prod < 100 GB	K8s Operator (CloudNativePG, Zalando)
Prod 100 GB – 1 TB	Managed (RDS / CloudSQL / Aurora)
Prod > 1 TB IOPS-yoğun	Bare metal / dedicated VM + managed backup
Multi-region active-active	CockroachDB / YugabyteDB (Postgres değil!)

🔑 Kural: "DB operasyonu senin core competency'in mi?" Cevap "hayır" ise managed servis. Vendor lock-in maliyeti, postgres DBA maaşının onda biri.

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⚙️ postgresql.conf Tuning

⚠️ pgtune.leopard.in.ua ile başla, sonra workload'una göre tune et. Aşağıdaki değerler 16 GB RAM, 4 vCPU referansı.

Memory

# Total RAM × 25% — query buffer cache
shared_buffers = 4GB

# Per-query work memory — sıralama, hash join
# Total RAM × 25% / max_connections * 2
work_mem = 16MB

# Maintenance (VACUUM, CREATE INDEX) — Total RAM × 5%
maintenance_work_mem = 1GB

# OS file cache hint — Postgres'in OS cache'e güveni
effective_cache_size = 12GB

# WAL buffer
wal_buffers = 16MB

Connections

max_connections = 100   # PgBouncer arkasında düşük tut

# Statement timeout — kötü query'leri öldür
statement_timeout = 60s
idle_in_transaction_session_timeout = 5min
lock_timeout = 30s

🔑 Kural: max_connections × work_mem ≤ shared_buffers. Aksi halde memory exhaustion riski.

Checkpoint & WAL

# Checkpoint daha seyrek + smooth
checkpoint_timeout = 15min
checkpoint_completion_target = 0.9
max_wal_size = 4GB
min_wal_size = 1GB

# WAL replication için
wal_level = replica
max_wal_senders = 10
hot_standby = on

Query Planner

random_page_cost = 1.1   # SSD için (HDD'de 4.0)
effective_io_concurrency = 200   # SSD/NVMe
default_statistics_target = 100   # plan kalitesi

Logging (production observability için kritik)

log_destination = 'stderr'
logging_collector = on
log_directory = 'log'
log_filename = 'postgresql-%Y-%m-%d_%H%M%S.log'
log_rotation_age = 1d
log_rotation_size = 100MB

log_min_duration_statement = 500ms   # 500ms+ query'leri logla
log_checkpoints = on
log_connections = on
log_disconnections = on
log_lock_waits = on
log_temp_files = 0   # tüm temp file'ları logla (work_mem yetersiz indikatörü)
log_autovacuum_min_duration = 0
log_line_prefix = '%m [%p] %q%u@%d/%a '

Autovacuum (asla kapatma)

autovacuum = on   # ASLA off değil
autovacuum_max_workers = 4
autovacuum_naptime = 30s

# Hızlandır (default'lar bloat'a yol açar)
autovacuum_vacuum_scale_factor = 0.05   # tablo %5 büyüyünce vacuum
autovacuum_analyze_scale_factor = 0.02
autovacuum_vacuum_cost_limit = 1000

🚨 autovacuum = off = DB ölüm fermanı. Table bloat → query yavaşlar → cardinality kötü → daha çok bloat. Spiral.

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🌊 Connection Pooling: PgBouncer

PostgreSQL connection = process. Her connection ~10 MB RAM. max_connections=500 = 5 GB sadece idle connection.

PgBouncer: 1 worker, binlerce client connection'ını birkaç DB connection'ına çoğaltır.

Mod seçimi

Mode	Kullanım	Limitler
Session	Default; client-conn = DB-conn lifetime	Pool tükenir, idle timeouts
Transaction	Connection transaction sonu serbest	Çoğu app için en iyi
Statement	Her statement sonu serbest	Multi-statement TX yasak

🔑 pool_mode = transaction modern app için sweet spot.

Config örneği

# /etc/pgbouncer/pgbouncer.ini
[databases]
app = host=<DB_HOST> port=5432 dbname=app

[pgbouncer]
listen_addr = *
listen_port = 6432
auth_type = scram-sha-256
auth_file = /etc/pgbouncer/userlist.txt

pool_mode = transaction

# Pool sizing
default_pool_size = 25      # DB connection per pool
min_pool_size = 5
reserve_pool_size = 5
reserve_pool_timeout = 5

max_client_conn = 1000      # client'tan toplam max
max_db_connections = 50     # DB tarafına toplam max

# Timeout
server_idle_timeout = 600
server_lifetime = 3600
query_wait_timeout = 120

# TLS
server_tls_sslmode = require
client_tls_sslmode = require

App tarafı

postgres://app:<PWD>@<PGBOUNCER_HOST>:6432/app?sslmode=require

⚠️ Transaction mode'da prepared statements sorun yaratır. Postgres 14+ ile protocol-level prepared statements PgBouncer'da destekleniyor (max_prepared_statements).

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🔒 Security Baseline

pg_hba.conf

# /etc/postgresql/<VER>/main/pg_hba.conf

# local connection (Unix socket)
local  all      all                            scram-sha-256

# local network — uygulama subnet'i
host   app      app           10.0.0.0/8       scram-sha-256

# replica
host   replication  replicator  10.0.0.0/8     scram-sha-256

# DENY everything else
host   all      all           0.0.0.0/0        reject

🚨 host all all 0.0.0.0/0 trust veya md5 = kapı açık bırakmak. Production'da bu satır olmamalı.

Role hijyeni

-- Superuser sadece DBA için, app değil
CREATE ROLE dba_team SUPERUSER;

-- App user — sadece kendi DB'sine, sadece gerekli table'lar
CREATE ROLE app LOGIN PASSWORD '<PWD>';
GRANT CONNECT ON DATABASE app TO app;
GRANT USAGE ON SCHEMA public TO app;
GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE ON ALL TABLES IN SCHEMA public TO app;
GRANT USAGE, SELECT ON ALL SEQUENCES IN SCHEMA public TO app;

-- Migration için ayrı role
CREATE ROLE app_migrate LOGIN PASSWORD '<PWD>';
GRANT app TO app_migrate;
GRANT CREATE ON SCHEMA public TO app_migrate;

Encryption

• In transit: TLS zorunlu (pg_hba.conf hostssl)
• At rest: Filesystem-level (LUKS) veya cloud KMS-backed disk
• Sensitive columns: pgcrypto veya app-side encryption

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📊 Monitoring

pg_stat_statements extension

-- postgresql.conf
shared_preload_libraries = 'pg_stat_statements'

-- DB'de
CREATE EXTENSION IF NOT EXISTS pg_stat_statements;

-- En yavaş query'ler
SELECT query, calls, total_exec_time, mean_exec_time, rows
FROM pg_stat_statements
ORDER BY mean_exec_time DESC
LIMIT 20;

-- Toplam zamanın nereye gittiği
SELECT query, total_exec_time
FROM pg_stat_statements
ORDER BY total_exec_time DESC
LIMIT 20;

Postgres Exporter (Prometheus)

# helm install: prometheus-community/prometheus-postgres-exporter
postgresql-exporter:
  config:
    datasource:
      uri: <PG_HOST>:5432
      user: postgres_exporter
      passwordSecret:
        name: postgres-exporter-creds
        key: password
      database: postgres
      sslmode: require
  serviceMonitor:
    enabled: true

Anahtar metrikler + alarmlar

groups:
  - name: postgres
    rules:
      - alert: PostgresDown
        expr: pg_up == 0
        for: 1m

      - alert: PostgresReplicationLag
        expr: pg_replication_lag_seconds > 60
        for: 5m

      - alert: PostgresConnectionsHigh
        expr: pg_stat_activity_count / pg_settings_max_connections > 0.8
        for: 5m

      - alert: PostgresLongRunningTransaction
        expr: pg_stat_activity_max_tx_duration > 600
        for: 5m

      - alert: PostgresDeadlocks
        expr: rate(pg_stat_database_deadlocks[5m]) > 0
        for: 1m

      - alert: PostgresAutovacuumDisabled
        expr: pg_settings_autovacuum != 1

      - alert: PostgresTableBloat
        expr: pg_bloat_ratio > 50
        for: 30m

      - alert: PostgresDiskFullSoon
        expr: predict_linear(node_filesystem_avail_bytes{mountpoint="/var/lib/postgresql"}[6h], 24*3600) < 0
        for: 30m

Slow query log

-- Query 1+ saniye sürdü, log'a düşsün
ALTER SYSTEM SET log_min_duration_statement = '1s';
SELECT pg_reload_conf();

→ Log'lar Loki/Splunk'a ship edilir, dashboard'lara akar.

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🚦 Index Hijyeni

Eksik index tespiti

-- Sequential scan yapan tablolar
SELECT relname, seq_scan, seq_tup_read, idx_scan, idx_tup_fetch
FROM pg_stat_user_tables
WHERE seq_scan > idx_scan
ORDER BY seq_tup_read DESC;

Kullanılmayan index

-- Hiç kullanılmayan index'ler (drop adayı)
SELECT schemaname, relname, indexrelname, idx_scan
FROM pg_stat_user_indexes
WHERE idx_scan = 0
ORDER BY pg_relation_size(indexrelid) DESC;

Index bloat

-- pg_stat_progress_create_index sırasında REINDEX CONCURRENTLY
REINDEX INDEX CONCURRENTLY <INDEX_NAME>;

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🛡️ HA Topolojisi

Streaming Replication (basit)

PRIMARY ──WAL stream──▶ STANDBY-1 (sync, otomatik failover)
                    └──▶ STANDBY-2 (async, read replica)

Auto-failover: Patroni

• Patroni = Postgres + DCS (etcd/Consul) + watchdog
• Primary down → standby promote'a geçer
• Detaylar: HA-Patroni-Stolon.md

K8s Operator: CloudNativePG (önerilen)

helm install cnpg cloudnative-pg/cloudnative-pg \
  -n cnpg-system --create-namespace

apiVersion: postgresql.cnpg.io/v1
kind: Cluster
metadata:
  name: app-postgres
spec:
  instances: 3
  imageName: ghcr.io/cloudnative-pg/postgresql:16.4
  storage:
    size: 100Gi
    storageClass: <FAST_SSD_CLASS>
  bootstrap:
    initdb:
      database: app
      owner: app
  monitoring:
    enablePodMonitor: true
  backup:
    barmanObjectStore:
      destinationPath: s3://<BACKUP_BUCKET>/postgres
      s3Credentials:
        accessKeyId: {name: backup-creds, key: ACCESS_KEY}
        secretAccessKey: {name: backup-creds, key: SECRET_KEY}
      wal:
        compression: gzip
    retentionPolicy: "30d"
  resources:
    requests: {cpu: "2", memory: "8Gi"}
    limits: {cpu: "4", memory: "16Gi"}

🔑 CloudNativePG 2026'da en pragmatik K8s operator. HA + backup + monitoring + replication entegre.

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📦 Backup Stratejisi

Yöntem	RPO	Restore	Kullanım
pg_dump günde 1	24h	Yavaş	Dev / küçük
pg_basebackup	1 gün	Hızlı	Tam DB image
WAL-G + S3	< 5 dk	PITR	Çoğu prod sweet-spot
pgBackRest	< 5 dk	Hızlı	Inkremental, büyük prod
Streaming replica + snapshot	0	Anlık	HA, en üst seviye

Test edilmeyen backup = backup değil

# Quarterly: backup'tan restore tatbikatı
1. Yeni instance ayağa kaldır
2. Son backup'ı restore et
3. Smoke test: schema tutarlı mı, row count makul mü, app bağlanıyor mu?
4. RTO ölçü
5. Postmortem: gap varsa düzelt

⚠️ 3-2-1 kuralı: 3 kopya, 2 farklı medium, 1 off-site. Backup S3'te versioned + MFA delete açık.

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🔄 Zero-Downtime Migration

Detay: Zero-Downtime-Migrations.md.

Expand/Contract pattern

1. EXPAND: yeni column ekle (default null)
2. App: çift yazma (eski + yeni column)
3. Backfill: eski → yeni veri kopyala
4. App: sadece yeni column'a yaz/oku
5. CONTRACT: eski column'u drop et

Online schema change

• gh-ost (GitHub) — MySQL için tasarlandı, postgres alternative pg_repack
• pg_repack: lock'suz tablo refactor

# Tablo bloat'ı temizle, lock'suz
pg_repack -d app -t large_table

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🚫 Anti-Pattern Tablosu

Anti-pattern	Niye kötü	Doğru
Default postgresql.conf prod'da	RaspberryPi optimize	pgtune + workload-tune
max_connections=500 PgBouncer'sız	RAM exhaustion	PgBouncer + düşük max_connections
superuser ile uygulama bağlanıyor	Yetki ihlali, audit kayıp	App-specific role, least privilege
autovacuum = off	Bloat → DB ölür	Asla kapatma
Backup test edilmemiş	Kriz anında çalışmaz	Quarterly restore drill
pg_dump 500 GB DB'de	Saatler sürer, transaction tutarsız	WAL-G veya pgBackRest
Index strategy yok	Sequential scan'ler, query yavaş	pg_stat_user_indexes review
Kullanılmayan index 50+	Write amplification	Quarterly cleanup
Replication lag monitor edilmez	Read replica stale veri verir	Alert + dashboard
Schema migration unattended deploy	DROP COLUMN prod ortasında	Expand/contract pattern
DB internet'e açık	Brute force	private network only
TLS yok	Sniffer şifre okur	hostssl enforce
Aynı DB tüm app'ler	Cross-tenant query, SLO ihlali	DB-per-service veya schema-per-service
Connection retry sonsuz	DB down → app DDoS yapar DB'ye	Exponential backoff + jitter

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📋 Production Hazırlık Checklist

[ ] postgresql.conf workload'a tune
[ ] PgBouncer (transaction mode) kurulu
[ ] pg_hba.conf: 0.0.0.0/0 yok, sadece app subnet
[ ] TLS enforce (hostssl)
[ ] App user least privilege; superuser sadece DBA
[ ] autovacuum aktif, hızlandırılmış
[ ] pg_stat_statements extension
[ ] postgres-exporter + Prometheus + alarmlar
[ ] Slow query log → SIEM/Loki
[ ] HA: streaming replica (sync + async)
[ ] Patroni veya CloudNativePG ile auto-failover
[ ] Backup: WAL-G veya pgBackRest, S3 versioned + MFA delete
[ ] Quarterly restore drill
[ ] Index review (eksik + kullanılmayan)
[ ] Migration: expand/contract pattern, manuel review
[ ] Connection retry: exponential backoff + jitter (app-side)
[ ] DR plan: primary down → standby promote ne kadar?
[ ] Capacity planning: disk/conn/CPU trend
[ ] PII encryption: pgcrypto veya app-side
[ ] Audit log: pgaudit (ya da pg_stat_activity'den ship)
[ ] Logical replication (read-replica → analytics)

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📚 Referanslar

• PostgreSQL Documentation — postgresql.org/docs
• CloudNativePG — cloudnative-pg.io
• Patroni — github.com/zalando/patroni
• PgBouncer — pgbouncer.org
• pgtune — pgtune.leopard.in.ua
• WAL-G — github.com/wal-g/wal-g
• pgBackRest — pgbackrest.org
• Backup-Restore-Patterns.md
• HA-Patroni-Stolon.md
• Zero-Downtime-Migrations.md
• Connection-Pooling.md
• Monitoring-Postgres.md

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"PostgreSQL'in en iyi feature'ı: 35 yıllık olgunluk. En kötüsü: default config'inin 35 yıl önceki donanım için yazılmış olması. Tune etmeyen prod'a alıyorsa, Postgres'i değil kendini suçlasın."